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rugosacultivarswerediploid（2n等于2x等于14）.Anumberofkaryotypeparameters,includingkaryotypeformula,chromosomerelativelength,ratioofthelongestchromosometotheshortestoneinlength,armratio,asymmetryindexandcentromereindex,wereinterpretedasbiomarkersforidentificationofvarietiesandcorrespondinglythegeicdistancewasanalyzed,revealingthatdistinctdifferencesinbothkaryotypeandploidylevelsexistedbetweenR.hybridaandR.rugosacultivarsandR.rugosacultivarsappearedtobemoreadvancedinkaryotypeevolution.21cultivars’karyotypeofornamentalGinkgowasstudiedbyGaoetc[9]withsmearmethod.Thekaryotypeofallcultivarswasreportedtobeidentical,andtherelativelengthofchromosomevariedfrom4.31%to15.34%forthefemalecultivars,aswellas4.37%to17.12%forthemale.Forapproximately83.33%ofallthevarietiesinthisresearch,thearmratioofchromosomewasabove2：1,whichbelongedtoasymmetric3Btype.Clusteranalysiswasconductedonthebasisofkaryotypecalculation,showingthatthemeanarmratioorlengthratioofornamentalGinkgocultivarswassignificantlydifferentfromoriginalGinkgoBiloba,andconsequentlytheoriginality,evolutionandclassificationofthesecultivarswerediscussed.Intotal6varietiesofHippophaeRhamnoidesL.wereselectedbyLietc[10]toanalyzekaryotypecharacteristicsofchromosomes,including4strainsfromRussiaand2strainsfromChina.Karyotypeformula,asymmetryindex,centromereindexandratioofthelongestchromosometotheshortestoneinlengthwereparedandcontrastedbetweenthesevarieties,providingthebasisfortheidentificationandevolutionaryanalysisofHippophaeRhamnoidesL.varieties.Accordingtotheasymmetryindex,sixofthesecultivarswereclassifiedintomiddlecentromereorsub-middlecentromere,withkaryotypetypesas2Aor2B.
40typicalandstablevarietiesofChineselarge-floweredchrysanthemumwerechosentocarryoutcytologicalkaryotypeanalysisforinvestigationofgeicdifferences[11].1-4satellitechromosome（s）werereportedinapproximately35%ofthecultivars,withincreasingpossibilityofsatellitechromosomewhenchromosomenumberincreased.Thekaryotypesofthesevarietiesweresummarizedas2A,2Band2C,andtypes2Aand2Cweremorelikelytoappearinthecultivarswithhigherploidy.Theinterrelationshipofkaryotypeparametersincludinglong-/short-armratio,asymmetrycoefficientofkaryotypes,karyotypeasymmetryindexandrelativelengthofchromosomeswerediscussedinthisresearch,indicatinggreatvaluesofkaryotypeparametersforcultivaridentification,classificationandgeicevolutionanalysisforchrysanthemumsspecies.Therelationshipofkaryotypeparameterstowardsphenotypiccharacterswasalsoexamined,revealingthatthevariationoflong-/short-armratioandasymmetrycoefficientofkaryotypesledtohighestrelevancetomostphenotypiccharacters.
WildRosaspecies,whicharebroadlyfoundintheXinjiangUygurautonomousregionofChina,possessmanyimportantunknowneconomictraits.Yuetc[12]collectedkaryologicaldatafrom13samplesofsevenwildRosataxa（R.berberifolia,twobotanicalvarietiesofR.spinosissima,R.platyacantha,R.beggeriana,R.acicularis,andR.laxa）,whichwereeasilydistinguishedbykaryotypeparametersofchromosomeploidy,asymmetryindex,centromereindex,anddistributionofrelativelengths.Thekaryologicaldataprovidedprehensivecytogeicresourcetoanalyzethetaxonomy,evolutionandspeciationinthegenusRosaaswellastoidentifysuitablecultivarsforbreedingprograms.1.2Fluorescenceinsituhybridization（FISH）technique
Fluorescencebindingtechnologywithfluorescentdyes,whicharecapableofrevealingATorGCDNAsequencesonchromosomes,candistinguishdifferenttypesofheterochromatinonthechromosomes.Forexample,DAPI（4',6-diamino-2-pheny-lindoledihydrochloride）resultsintheappearanceofATrichregiononchromosomes,whereasCMA（ChromomycinA3）canrevealtheGCrichregion[13].Fluorescenceinsituhybridization（FISH）techniqueprovidestheaccuratemappinginformationofrDNAprobesonthechromosome,whichbeesthemoreeffectivemarkerstodistinguishchromosomesofplants[14].Sheetc[15]analyzedthemitoticmetaphasechromosomesofArachishypogaeaL.speciesbyusingabinationofDAPI+bandingtechnologyanddoublefluorescenceinsituhybridization（FISH）techniquewithboth5Sand45SrDNAprobes.Onthebasisofthechromosomemeasurements,DAPI+bandsandrDNAFISHsignals,thechromosomesofArachishypogaeaL.wereaccuratelypairedandarranged,leadingtoamolecularcytogeickaryotypeindetail.
However,DAPIbandingpatternsvariesbetweendifferentplantspecies.Xuetc[16]paredDAPIfluorescentbandingpatternsamongdifferentplantspecies,indicatingthatfluorescentbandswereobviouslyobservedinmaizeandpeanutspecies,followedbysesameandloofahwhoseDAPIbandswererelativelyweaker.However,noclearDAPIbandscouldbeidentifiedinsoybeanchromosomes.
2DNAMolecularMarker
DNAmolecularmarkertechnologiesforplantvarietyidentificationmainlyincludeRFLP,RAPD,ISSR,AFLP,SNPandSSR.However,therankingofthesemolecularmarkertechniquesbasedonprehensiveeffectivenessisAFLP>
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