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ryandQuintilian'sTheoryofSubstitution.Becausemetaphorisnotonlyarhetoricalphenomenon,butalsooneofcognition,theinterpretationforceofthesetheoriesisverylimited.In1936,I.A.RichardsputforwardInteractionTheory.LaterMaxBlackmadeanelaborationoftheworkofhis.InteractionTheoryclaimsthatmetaphorisacognitivelyirreduciblephenomenonthatworksnotatthelevelofwordbination,butmuchdeeper,arisingoutoftheinteractionbetweentheconceptualstructuresunderlyingthewords.ButtheoneswhoreallyturnthestudyofmetaphortoanewpageareGeeLakoffandMarkJohnson.Themarkofthischangeisthepublicationofthebo 关于英语文年度,小学英语教学文评比的通知的学年毕业论文范文

关于参考文献论文例文oknamedMetaphorsWeLiveBy.ThetheoryofLakoffandJohnson'sisConceptualMetaphorTheory.Asthesescholarsregardmetaphorasthecreationofsimilarity,theirtheoriesconcentrateonhowthesimilarityiscreatedandhowthenewmeaningisproducedthoughtheirinterpretationsarenotperfect.Recently,anothertheoryappeared—ConceptualIntegrationTheoryorBlendingTheory.Comparativelyspeaking,itismoreconvincingonthemechanismofmetaphorthantheothertwo.(以下省略,此部分字数最少不少于300字)

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II.AHistoricalRetrospectionofMetaphor

2.1AristotelianSchool:Metaphor--ADeviceofRhetoric

AndrewOrtony,oneofthemostinfluentialwritersonmetaphor,haspointedout,andtherearefewwhowoulddisagreewithhim,thatitisstillthecasethat"AnyseriousstudyofmetaphorisalmostobligedtostartwiththeworksofAristotle"(Ortony3).(此处指引文来源:作者页码)

InPoetics,Aristotleexpoundstheessence,functionandthewayofexplanationofmetaphorasthreenuclei.Hedefinesmetaphoras"theapplicationofanaliennamebytransferenceeitherfromgenustospecies,orfromspeciestogenus,orfromspeciestospecies,orbyanalogy,thatis,proportion"(Aristotle71).Thenhegivesfourkindsofmetaphor:

Since'lyingatanchor'isaspeciesofthegenus'lying',onecansay'thereliesmyship'(genus-to-speciesmetaphor),since'tenthousand'isaspeciesofa'largenumber',onecansayverilytenthousandnobledeedshathOdysseuswrought(species-to-genusmetaphor).Since'todrawaway'and'tocleave'areeachaspeciesofthegenus'takingaway',onecansaywithbladeofbronzedrewawaythelife(species-to-speciesmetaphor).Andsinceoldageistolifeaseveningtotheday,onecansaythatoldageistheeveningoflife(ibid.).(此符号ibid.意为同上,引文出处与上相同.本例为整段引用,即blockquotation,前后空五号字一行)

Allmetaphors,Aristotlebelieves,fallintoatleastoneofthesefourcategories,althoughanalogymetaphorsarethemostpleasing.Aristotlealsoholdsthatmetaphorcanmaketheprosaicstylecharming,andstressesthatitcanonlybeconfinedtopoetry(ibid.72).Thisperspectiveleadstothelatertheoristsmakingdistinctionbetweenpoeticlanguageandeverydaylanguage.EspeciallyinChapter21and22ofPoetics,Aristotlestatesthateveryword"iseithercurrent,orstrange,ormetaphor,orornamental,ornewlycoined,orlengthened,orcontracted,oraltered"(ibid.70).ItisobviousthatAristotleclassifiesmetaphorsaslyingoutsidenormallanguageuse.Theyaredeviantoraberrantformsofdiscourse.Healsoholdsthatmetaphorhasnocognitivevalueandismerelyanembellishmentoflanguage(Kittay1).AlsointhischapterofPoetics,heelaborateshowmetaphorsareunusualanddiscussestherelationshipbetweenmetaphorandgenius,viewingmetaphorasatalentofepicpoetsandtragedians:

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Thegreatestthingbyfaristohaveamandofmetaphor.Thisalonecannotbeimportedbyanother,itisthemarkofgenius—fortomakegoodmetaphorsimpliesaneyeforresemblances(Aristotle72).

本文转载于:http://www.sxsky.net/xie/070838000.html

AsHawkswritesaboutAristotle'saccountofmetaphor:

Itisabundantlyclearthat,asanentityinitself,metaphorisregardedasadecorativeadditiontolanguage,tobeusedinspecificways,andatspecifictimesandplaces(ibid.8-9).

InRhetoric,(书名下划线)Aristotlesaysthatthebestmetaphorsarethosethatachievetheeffectofbringingthingsvividlybeforetheeyesoftheaudience.Hearguesthatthiseffectis"producedbywordswhichrefertothingsinaction"(ibid.92-93)."Thebestimageinvolvesametaphor"(ibid.96).Fromtheabovestatements,weknowthatAristotleviewsmetaphorasarhetoricaldeviceandanembellishmentoflanguage.Finallyheestablisheshistheoryonmetaphor—ComparisonTheory.Itistheearliesttheoryinthehistoryofthestudyofmetaphor.Itsmaingistis:

1Metaphorsaremattersoflanguageandnotmattersofthoughtoraction.Thereisnosuchthingasmetaphoricalthoughtoraction.

2Ametaphoroftheform"AisB"isalinguisticexpressionwhosemeaningisthesameasacorrespondinglinguisticexpressionoftheform"AislikeB,inrespectX,Y,Z等""RespectsX,Y,Z等"characterizewhatwehavecalled"isolatedsimilarities".

3Ametaphorcanthereforeonlydescribepreexistingsimilarities.Itcan'tcreatesimilarities(Lakoff&,Johnson1980:153).(如果在论文中引用同一作者的不同į

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